A Redefinition of Gravity
Part
III
The Inverse Square Law
Miles Mathis
In this section of the paper I will address an
extremely important question regarding the theory of expansion of mass.
This question is in regard to the diminishment of the “field” as the
square of the distance. Opponents of expansion theory often bring up this
problem early on in their argument. They say that expansion theory does
nothing to explain the inverse square law. Of course current theory does
not explain this either. It is simply a “finding” of current theory, an
empirical fact. The force of attraction diminishes with the square of the
distance. It is known to be true and so no one even attempts to justify it
with a deeper explanation. What explanation could there be? At a certain
of level of any theory you stop asking why and just accept that the
universe works in that way. This is what both classical theory and General
Relativity do at this point. They accept it as an empirical fact and offer
maths that express it. If you ask someone who accepts the Standard Model
to explain why force obeys the inverse square law, you get no answer. It
is equivalent to asking them why electrons exist. They do, that’s all.
Until recently, I thought this way as
well. I was not prone to question the inverse square law because I
accepted it like I accept the existence of the Earth and the existence of
electrons. You don’t ask why the Earth is here—as a scientific question.
You may ask it as a religious question, but science can give no possible
answer. Why is the universe here? This is question so far beyond us that
even if it is a physical question, it must appear metaphysical at this
distance.
However, upon reflection, and after doing some rather
simple math, I became grateful that my opponents had (rather rudely)
demanded an answer. It allowed me to discover an answer to a question I
had not even considered, and this answer allowed me to present one more
demonstrable point of superiority of expansion theory to current theory.
My opponents are correct in one sense:
expansion theory does demand an answer to the question a bit more
forcefully than current theory. Current theory keeps the question in the
shadows. Current theory does not claim to solve gravity with real
acceleration of the body outward, so the question does not come up without
some digging. The question does not come up, and so the solution does not
come up either. The whole problem is just ignored, as it has been ignored
since the time of Newton. It is assumed to be unanswerable, so no one does
any math to answer it one way or another.
At first glance, it
seems to be a big problem for expansion theory. This is because at first
glance what you do is imagine two objects close together accelerating at
eachother and then imagine two objects very far away accelerating at
eachother. There doesn’t appear to be any physical difference. Therefore
the inverse square law is unexplainable. However, it isn’t that simple.
Unless you have a lot of previous experience with accelerations and with
Relativity, it is difficult to see that there is a difference in the two
situations and that the difference yields the inverse square law. Most
people will have to do the math to see it. And most people who criticize
expansion theory are not ready to do the math. They are satisfied with
their gut reaction and they do nothing to settle the question one way or
the other. For these people I offer the math below.
It is
fortunate that I have kept Relativity, because we need some post-Newtonian
findings to solve this one. We don’t need a lot of difficult equations, we
just need reminding of some primary postulates of Relativity. The first
postulate we must be reminded of is that time and distance are
theoretically interchangeable, in some ways. What I mean is that a
distance separation implies a necessary time separation. In the time of
Newton, this was not true. If you were a long way away from point A, that
did not mean you were a long time away from point A. Newtonian time was
universal time, so that you could think of all points being no time away
from eachother. Light was thought to be infinitely fast, so that you could
actually see what was going on at a distance immediately, proving the lack
of time separation.
Now we think of
time differently. Every distance separation is also a time
separation. This being true, we must look more closely at the inverse
square law. The inverse square law says that gravitational accelerations
vary as the inverse square of the distance. No one has yet applied
Relativity to show why this is so, but expansion theory demands that I do
it now. First of all, notice that we are comparing accelerations to
distances. As distances double, for instance, accelerations must quarter.
But to compare distances to accelerations, we must also be aware of the
time intervals in the comparison. Acceleration always has a time
component, and with Relativity you cannot assume that the times are
equivalent from one example to another.
Consider the comparison of a nearby planet to a distant planet. In
comparing accelerations before Relativity, you just put both planets in
the same coordinate system and did a straight comparison. You can’t do
that anymore, because the more distant orbit has a time separation from
the nearer orbit. Let us say the near orbit has a radius of x and the far
orbit has a radius of 21x. The distance separation is 20x. The time
separation is t = 20x/c. The times at which the two orbits exist
are not the same. Therefore you cannot do a straight comparison of
accelerations.
In expansion theory, we
give the acceleration to the Sun, not to the orbiting planet. Therefore we
are talking about a primary event that is taking place at the Sun.
That event arrives at the near orbit x/c seconds after it happens at the
Sun, and it arrives at the far orbit 20x/c seconds after that.
x =
ct
But to compare accelerations and
distances, you have to compare them at the same time. How do you do that?
There is no universal time to set your watches by, so you just pick a time
arbitrarily and measure from there. In this problem it is easiest to set
your time from the near orbit. It is easiest because it allows us to
imagine that the near orbit is the orbit of the Earth and the far orbit is
Saturn, say. We are now in a comfortably familiar situation, and we can
look at the solar system from a perspective that is our very own.
The easiest way to get our numbers is
to let the event at the Sun reach the orbit of Saturn and then work back.
This will help us visualize the whole thing. So at t0 we have
an event at the Sun, which is the Sun gobbling up some distance in some
dt. We mark that particular distance with a bit of red paint or something
so that we can differentiate it from all other similar events. x/c
seconds later the event arrives at the Earth. 21x/c seconds after the
event, it arrives at Saturn. But we want to compare two events that happen
over the same Δt or at the same dt. Otherwise we can’t do a meaningful
comparison. If we compare what is happening at the Earth with what is
happening at Saturn 20x/c seconds later, we are not learning anything
useful. Or, even if what we learn might be called useful, it can’t be
called equivalent to what we are trying to learn and what we have always
assumed we were learning. What we have always assumed we were learning
with the inverse square law is how two different forces or accelerations
looked from the same place. Newton’s equation assumes that all
measurements are made from the Earth, or at least from the same place.
Newton’s inverse square equation describes what happens when you measure
or calculate the acceleration of the Earth from the Earth and the
acceleration of Saturn from the Earth, making the measurements at the same
time. It does not describe the situation of measuring the acceleration of
the Earth from the Earth at one time and the acceleration of Saturn from
Saturn at some later time. You must understand this in order to understand
the inverse square law. We could measure both events from Saturn as well:
I am not proposing a geocentric theory. I am just reminding the reader
that both classical mechanics and, even more, Relativity demand precision
is choosing points of view and sticking with them.
Now we just
choose our Δt. We choose the interval when the red paint event reaches the
Earth. That interval is 20x/c seconds before the event reaches Saturn. You
may say, “If the event hasn’t reached Saturn, how can we compare
accelerations and distances?” Fortunately, the Sun was expanding before
and after our red-paint event. We have an infinite series of expansions to
choose from, you see, all with the same acceleration if measured by the
Sun, but gobbling up slightly different amounts of space. Remember that if
you go back in time, the Sun will have been a bit smaller, and, although
it had the same acceleration, it covered a bit less distance over the same
time. That is what acceleration is.
This
means that the event that Saturn is experiencing during our chosen Δt is
some event before our red-paint event. So, during our chosen Δt, we
experience the Sun gobbling up some Δx; but Saturn is experiencing an
earlier Sun gobbling up some smaller Δx. And, if we did the right math, we
on Earth would be calculating correctly what Saturn is experiencing during
that Δt. If we have Saturn experiencing a smaller Δx over the same Δt,
then Saturn will be experiencing a smaller acceleration than the Earth
over that interval.
We have already proven half of what we set
out to prove. My opponents, judging at a glance, came to the conclusion
that all distances would be feeling the same acceleration. I have shown
that is not the case, just by applying the most basic finding of
Relativity. I have shown that if you increase the distance, you decrease
the acceleration; but only if you measure all the distances and
accelerations from the same time and place. Now all I have to do is
show that the acceleration decreases with the square of the distance. I
hope you can see that that is not too hard to do, knowing what we now
know.
x = (½)aΔt2
a =
2x/Δt2
Already we can see
that acceleration varies as the inverse square of the time. And we have an
equation to relate time and distance.
x = cΔt
Δt =
x/c
So all we have to do is a little
switch of variables.
a = 2x/Δt2
a =
2cΔt/(x/c)2
= 2c3Δt
/x2
c3 is a
constant and so is Δt in our problem above. Therefore acceleration must
vary as the inverse of the distance. The inverse square law is simply
an outcome of the definition of acceleration. We have a time variable
squared in the denominator of the basic acceleration equation. Since time
and distance have an equivalence and since Relativity allows us to express
that equivalence with an equation, it is clear that the acceleration
equation must also give us a variance as the inverse square of the
distance. Of course the time must be invariant for this to be true, but in
our problem above the time was invariant simply because we did all
measurements and calculations from the same place. Time is always
invariant locally.
There are longer ways to prove this, and you
can do other (longer) mathematical proofs if it appeals to you. I think
you can see that I chose the most elegant way to get to the end. This
allowed me to do a lot of necessary explaining and very little math.
Considering the difficulty of the problem, I think this was the best way
to go. Pages of differential equations or Lagrangians or what have you
would have kept the problem abstract and would have prevented the clear
visualizations I have offered here. It is a beastly difficult problem to
approach, but it is a simple problem to leave behind you.
One
other amazing thing to notice before you move on to the next question.
Because we solved this problem using Relativity, we find that we cannot
reverse it and get the same answer. It is true that Relativity always
allows us to find transforms from one system to another, but it does not
guarantee that we will find the same numbers or relations if we switch the
accelerations. In this problem, if we give the acceleration to the
planet instead of to the Sun, the inverse square law cannot be
derived!
If this is not clear,
let’s run through the logic and the math. The events must now take place
at the planets. We will start with Saturn. Saturn either feels a force
from the Sun or simply has an acceleration vector toward the Sun given it
by the curved space it inhabits. Either way the primary event is at
Saturn. The event is a motion, and in the Standard Model, Saturn is moving
due to the field; the Sun is not moving. The same must be said of the
Earth. It feels a force or curves in its space, and its event is at the
Earth. Now, we want to compare Saturn’s event with Earth’s event, and we
must compare them at the same time. This is impossible to do since we now
have two “central” events. To find some link between the events, we must
find a common background. The light-time between the two events is not
enough information to provide a link, since we still don’t know when the
two events took place relative to eachother. We can’t yet compare the dt
of Saturn to the dt of the Earth. The only way to get a link is to assume
that the Sun is influencing them both, which is what all theories of
gravitation do and must do. If we believe in GR, we either believe that
the Sun is emitting gravitons or that the Sun is warping the space. This
puts the central event back at the Sun and allows us to connect up all the
orbital events in a common background. In this case we can use the
light-time difference between the two orbital distances to give us
relative times for the orbital events. Once again Saturn’s event must take
place 20x/c seconds after the Earth’s. Let us assume that the Sun is
emitting gravitons as our event (it could just as soon be a dt of
spacewarp as our event, but the graviton example is easier as a
visualization). x/c seconds later the Earth receives its gravitons, and
21x/c seconds after emission Saturn receives some gravitons from the same
360o event. We now have a link and we can compare the two
events at the planets.
If we do all
measurements from the Earth, we notice that once again we must be seeing
or measuring Saturn’s motions 20x/c seconds in the past. But this time it
doesn’t matter. The Sun is not expanding according to the Standard model,
so it is emitting the same gravitons now that it was emitting in the past.
The Sun’s influence—whatever it is—is not changing over
time.
This is the problem: we cannot
get the acceleration to vary over time. According to the postulates of
the Standard Model and the postulates of Relativity, distant planets
should be feeling the same influence from the Sun, whatever it is, as
nearby planets. There is no concept that would explain why the influence
would diminish with distance.
If the
Sun is sending out gravitons or warping space, then either the particles
or the warp should proceed outwards without diminishment. There is nothing
to diminish them, so they should not be diminished. Light proceeds outward
from the Sun without diminishment; why should gravitons or warping
diminish? Saturn should be receiving the same gravitons or warp that the
Earth receives. Why doesn’t it?
You
will say that the equations are the same in the Standard Model as in my
math above. That is,
x = (½)aΔt2
a = 2x/Δt2
x = cΔt
Δt = x/c
Why should the
inverse square law work for expansion theory and not for the Standard
Model? Because these equations show that if there is a variation in
acceleration, it will vary as the inverse square of the distance. But the
Standard Model cannot show any variation. According to the standing
concepts, there should be no variation in acceleration. Saturn should feel
the same influence as the Earth and should have the same acceleration,
whether you postulate gravitons or warping. Adding Relativity to the
situation does not help, as I have shown, since past influences are just
like present influences with a stable Sun.
It is not expansion
theory that fails to explain the inverse square law, it is the Standard
Model. For the first time in history I have derived the inverse square
law from first principles, and from motion alone. And I have shown that
the Standard Model cannot explain the inverse square law. In fact, it is
logically impossible to derive the inverse square law from the Standard
Model. With the Standard Model, the law can only be an empirical fact: one
that contradicts the Model itself.
All this stands as empirical
proof of expansion theory. We have mountains of physical evidence that the
inverse square law is true. All gravitational theory has been built to
express this law in more and more precise ways. But the Standard Model
cannot explain the law. It can exist only by hiding the conflict between
the law and the current math.
Before
Einstein, this problem was insoluble. Without the equation x = ct, no
classical physicist could have hoped to solve this problem, or even
recognize its existence. The inverse square law could only be accepted as
a fact. No possible deeper concepts could explain it. Since Einstein,
Relativity has given us a clear method of solving the problem. If Einstein
had applied his first concepts to the gravitational problem directly, as I
have, instead of getting involved in tensors, he might have solved the
problem almost a hundred years ago. For some reason, he didn’t. He quickly
became more interested in a complex mathematical representation of the
field than in a conceptual clarification of the field. I cannot know why
this is so. Possibly he was not able to simplify the field as I have done
here. Possibly he saw all I have seen here and suppressed it as
politically unfeasible. Mathematicians were powerful and insistent in the
early part of the 20th century, and entry into the field was possible with
esoteric math, not with “harebrained schemes” like expansion, no matter
how much it could explain. The milieu then, as now, demanded cutting edge
math and dense and abbreviated text. Perhaps Einstein judged correctly
that this would impress where clear and simple math and full explanations
would not.
Whatever the case, General
Relativity has successfully hidden the problem for almost a century. The
inverse square law is thought to be a Newtonian concept, stale and passé.
Force and acceleration have also been superceded as concepts by action
variables, and the contradictions of current theory are cloaked in every
possible way. The problems with Newton’s theories have been buried, and
the one theory that might have solved these problems has only served to
bury them further. It is apparently thought by some that using action
variables supercedes the old problems. But action is built on a
compression of Newtonian variables: it inherits all the problems of its
Master. Be assured, gasping under the weight of the tensor calculus and
the Hamiltonians and Lagrangians and so forth, this problem survives to
the current day. The inverse square law points unerringly at expansion
theory and away from the Standard Model.
Link: A Redefinition of Gravity: Part IV
Link to Miles Mathis's Website
